Interregional/Global

By nature a global phenomenon, the COVID–19 pandemic has ignored borders and their politics, requiring international coordination to pool resources, inhibit transmission, and facilitate economic recovery. However, it has also led to the emergence of transnational social problems. Border closures and travel restrictions have contributed to the stigmatization of foreign nationals and racial and ethnic minority groups, fueling anti-immigrant attitudes and rendering conditions for migrants and refugees all the more precarious. The initial appearance of the coronavirus in China precipitated not only anti-Chinese discrimination, but anti-Asian racism more broadly in parts of the world where people of Asian descent are a minority. And now inequalities in vaccine supply have precipitated “vaccine nationalism” in the rush to inoculate, prompting calls for increased global solidarity and attention to equity as a critical issue that must be scaled from the local to the global.

• Global data dashboards
  • WHO
  • Johns Hopkins
  • COVAX
  • Our World in Data
  • COVID-19: The impact of closing borders around the world
• Vaccine nationalism and the dynamics and control of SARS-CoV-2 (Wagner et al. 2021, Science)
• “Head of UN health agency seeks vaccine booster moratorium” (Associated Press | August 2021)
• Video report: Refugees fall further behind in queue to get vaccinated against Covid-19 (ABC News Australia | August 2021)
• COVID-19 Exacerbating Inequality, Marginalization Faced by Indigenous Peoples, Speakers Underline, as Permanent Forum Continues Session (UN Economic and Social Council, via ReliefWeb | April 2021)
• “Western countries have ‘hoarded’ Covid vaccines. Africa is being left behind as cases surge” (CNN | February 2021)
• “Covid-19: Chinatowns fighting racism and pandemic to survive” (BBC News | February 2021)
• “Covid-19 Fueling Anti-Asian Racism and Xenophobia Worldwide” (Human Rights Watch | May 2020)
• “Migrants stranded ‘all over the world’ and at risk from coronavirus” (UN News | May 2020)
• “As World Comes to Halt Amid Pandemic, So Do Migrants” (The New York Times | May 2020)
• “How COVID-19 halted NGO migrant rescues in the Mediterranean” (The New Humanitarian | April 2020)
• “Coronavirus: Why some racial groups are more vulnerable” (BBC News | April 2020)
• “Isolated indigenous tribes risk extinction from coronavirus, experts say” (NBC News | April 2020)
• Video report: Coronavirus pandemic leaves refugees vulnerable (Al Jazeera | March 2020)
• “The Other Problematic Outbreak” (The Atlantic | March 2020)
• “Chinese tourists finding they are no longer welcome as fear over coronavirus takes hold” (The Japan Times | January 2020)

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Africa and the Middle East

Although much of Africa and the Middle East fared well in the early moments of the pandemic relative to other areas, the global economic effects of lockdown and trade slowdown, emergent strains of the virus, and new waves of illness have brought effects to the region similar to those elsewhere in the world. Many refugees and other immigrants have struggled to gain access to health services as governments prioritize citizens for treatment and vaccination. Those confined to camps face conditions that make social distancing and other protective measures all but impossible. These conditions have been exacerbated by a combination of low vaccine supply, severe economic downturns, and a resurgence in viral transmission. The effects of the pandemic have been wide-ranging, shaping the scheduling of contentious elections, upending already precarious livelihoods, fueling anti-immigrant attitudes, and disrupting the migration routes of those seeking asylum and opportunity.

Transnational

• “Coronavirus leaves the Gulf’s migrant workers in limbo, with no income and no easy way out” (CNN | May 2020)
• “Migrants Are Among The Worst Hit By COVID-19 In Saudi Arabia And Gulf Countries” (NPR | May 2020)
• “Thousands of Ethiopian migrants quarantined in universities wait to go home” (The Thomson Reuters Foundation | May 2020)
• “Migrant workers bear brunt of coronavirus pandemic in Gulf” (The Guardian | April 2020)

Algeria

• “Sahrawi refugees in COVID-19 lockdown hit by livestock epidemic” (UN Refugee Agency News | September 2020)

Ethiopia

• “Ethiopia’s Tigray region eyes election in challenge to national unity” (Reuters | May 2020)

Israel and Palestine

• “U.S. Donation of COVID-19 Vaccines Arrives in West Bank and Gaza” (Haaretz | August 2021)
• “Israeli councils ‘illegally’ bar Palestinians from accessing beaches, citing Covid-19 rules” (Middle East Eye | August 2021)
• “Unpaid COVID-19 Leave in Israel Hit Women, Arabs, Haredim First” (Haaretz | May 2021)
• “Israeli settler attacks on Palestinians increase under coronavirus lockdown” (Middle East Eye | May 2020)
• “Palestinians claim COVID-19 efforts blunted by Israel in East Jerusalem” (Al-Monitor | May 2020)

Jordan

• “‘Like a ship about to sink’: Refugees in Jordan voice pandemic despair” (The New Humanitarian | May 2020)

Kuwait

• “‘Like sardines’: Migrant workers suffering in Kuwait’s desert detention camps” (Middle East Eye | May 2020)

Lebanon

• Video report: Refugees, migrant workers left out of Lebanon COVID vaccine drive (Al Jazeera | April 2021)

Libya

“COVID-19 lockdown worsens migrants’ suffering in Libya” (Al Jazeera | May 2020)

Morocco

• “Sub-Saharan migrants in Morocco trapped by coronavirus and poverty” (Middle East Eye | May 2020)

Nigeria

• “How the coronavirus pandemic is fueling ethnic hatred” (The Washington Post | September 2020)

Qatar

• “Despite coronavirus, it’s ‘business as usual’ for World Cup workers in Qatar” (The Guardian | March 2020)
• World Cup & Expo 2020 Construction: COVID-19 & Risks to Migrant Workers in Qatar & the UAE (Business & Human Rights Resource Centre | March 2020)

Saudi Arabia

• “Covid-19: Saudi Arabia banned Yemeni residents from accessing vaccines, says report” (Middle East Eye | August 2021)
• “Saudi Arabia to deport foreign nationals who flout coronavirus measures” (Middle East Eye | May 2020)

South Africa

• “Violent unrest in South Africa imperils COVID-19 response” (Al Jazeera | July 2021)
• “Xenophobia Surges as Covid-19 Slams South African Economy” (Bloomberg | December 2020)
• “South Africa: Hatred of migrants reaches new heights” (Deutsche Welle | September 2020)

Tunisia

• “Tunisia: Release immigration detainees amid COVID-19 pandemic” (Amnesty International | April 2020)

Uganda

Video report: Refugees in Uganda Battle Suicidal Thoughts Amid COVID Pandemic (Voice of America News | May 2021)

United Arab Emirates

• “Coronavirus: Indians tell of grief and cling to hope as they board repatriation flights home” (The National | May 2020)
• “‘I’m trapped’: the UAE migrant workers left stranded by Covid-19 job losses” (The Guardian | April 2020)

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The Americas

Across the Americas, Indigenous, Afro-descendant people, and other racial and ethnic minorities have borne the brunt of COVID–19, dying at far higher rates than their White counterparts. From language barriers to distrust of government programs, hurdles to the protection of disproportionately vulnerable communities have stratified outcomes most of the region’s countries. The need to make sense of this disparity has led some governments and many NGOs to mobilize data collection and disaggregation as a tool to intervene in problems at the intersection of health and society, including implicit biases in healthcare institutions, misinformation, and resource access. As with other parts of the world, anti-Asian racism erupted in the wake of the virus’s emergence from China. Despite the stoking of flames by nationalists and nativists across the region, hate crimes against people of Asian descent have also generated widespread anti-racism campaigns in the U.S. and Canada (including #StopAsianHate).

Transnational

• “Inequality should be factored into Latin America’s COVID-19 vaccine plans – UNESCO” (Reuters | August 2021)
• “The Caribbean Conundrum: United by Tourists, Divided by Covid” (The New York Times | May 2021)
• People of African descent and COVID-19: unveiling structural inequalities in Latin America (UN Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean | January 2021)
• “Caribbean indigenous people return to roots as COVID-19 shrinks tourism” (Reuters | August 2020)
• “Coronavirus Leads to Nosedive in Remittances in Latin America” (Inter Press Service | May 2020)
• “Anti-Asian racism during coronavirus: How the language of disease produces hate and violence” (The Conversation | March 2020)

Bolivia

• “Bolivia’s indigenous raise concern over ‘missing’ vaccines” (Reuters | July 2021)

Brazil

• “Fear of COVID-19 vaccine grows in Brazil’s remote Amazon” (The Associated Press | February 2021)
• Ethnic and regional variations in hospital mortality from COVID-19 in Brazil: a cross-sectional observational study (Baqui et al. 2020, The Lancet | July 2020)
• “‘Enormous disparities’: coronavirus death rates expose Brazil’s deep racial inequalities” (The Guardian | June 2020)
• “In Brazil, COVID-19 death rate for black community is higher than for other populations” (Agência Publica, via Global Voices | June 2020)
• “Coronavirus threatens indigenous Venezuelans seeking safety in Brazil” (UN Refugee Agency News | May 2020)
• “Coronavirus pandemic reaches dozens of Indigenous groups” (Al Jazeera | May 2020)
• “In response to COVID-19, authorities must ensure adequate access to healthcare for marginalized groups” (Amnesty International, press release | May 2020)

Canada

• “How tracking ethnicity and occupation data is helping fight COVID-19” (CBC News | June 2021)
• “More racially diverse areas reported much higher numbers of COVID-19 deaths: StatsCan” (CBC News | March 2021)
• “Most at risk, first in line: Public health experts say racialized Canadians should be prioritized for vaccines” (CBC News | February 2021)
• COVID-19’s Impact on the Administration of Justice in Canada’s Arctic (The Arctic Institute | December 2020)

Colombia

• “Colombia’s indigenous leaders urge COVID-19 vaccines given track record with tropical viruses” (The City Paper | August 2021)
• “Covid pushed millions worldwide from the middle class to poverty. One man is trying to work his way back.” (The Washington Post | May 2021)
• “Why vulnerable migrants say they’ll reject the Covid-19 vaccine in Colombia” (CNN | April 2021)
• “COVID-19 is also affecting Venezuela’s indigenous migrants” (Global Voices | April 2020)

Ecuador

• “COVID-19 brings fear and discrimination to Venezuelans in Ecuador” (The New Humanitarian | May 2020)

Guatemala

• “Indigenous refugees in Guatemala caught between COVID-19 and a volcano” (The New Humanitarian | April 2021)

Honduras

• Indigenous, Afro-Honduran communities join together to fight pandemic (UN Population Fund, via ReliefWeb | May 2020)

Mexico

• “Tourist visits lead to Covid-19 outbreak among Sonora’s indigenous Mexican people” (The Rio Times | July 2021)
• “Yucatecan Maya, the indigenous population most affected by Covid-19 in all of Mexico” (The Yucatán Times | June 2021)
• “Oaxaca Youth Create An App To Share Information About The Pandemic In Indigenous Languages” (Forbes | March 2021)
• “Indigenous Mexicans turn inward to survive COVID-19, barricading villages and growing their own food” (The Conversation | August 2020)
• “Mexico’s indigenous towns impose their own coronavirus lockdowns” (The Thomson Reuters Foundation | April 2020)

Panama

• “Panama’s 2nd biggest Indigenous group votes to ban masks” (The Associated Press | October 2020)

United States

• COVID racial/ethnic data tracking: COVID Racial Data Tracker, APM Research Lab, CDC
• “CDC Study: Black and Latinx Adults Died at Startlingly Higher Rates During the Pandemic” (Mother Jones | August 2021)
• Stop AAPI Hate National Report (March 2020 – June 2021) (Stop AAPI Hate | August 2021)
• HRC Foundation Survey of U.S. LGBTQ+ Adults Shows 92% Have at Least One COVID-19 Shot (Human Rights Campaign Foundation | August 2021)
• “Hundreds of migrants vaccinated against coronavirus in U.S.-Mexico border city” (Reuters | August 2021)
• “Exclusive: indigenous Americans dying from Covid at twice the rate of white Americans” (The Guardian | February 2021)
• “Hospitalized For COVID-19 Without Information: What Californians Who Speak an Indigenous Language Often Face” (California Health Report | February 2021)
• “Radio hosts were among the first who could explain Covid to indigenous Mexican farmworkers in US” (CNN | November 2020)
• “Every Corner of the Navajo Nation Has Been Hit By COVID-19” (Mother Jones | May 2020)
• “In New York City, indigenous Mexicans battle coronavirus amid language barriers, bias” (NBC News | May 2020)
• “How COVID-19 is impacting indigenous peoples in the U.S.” (PBS NewsHour | May 2020)
• “Why COVID-19 is decimating some Native American communities” (American Medical Association | May 2020)
• “Federal watchdog to investigate Trump official’s role in distribution of coronavirus relief funds to tribes” (ABC News U.S. | May 2020)
• “Doctors Without Borders dispatches team to the Navajo Nation” (CBS News | May 2020)
• “Citing coronavirus, Trump officials refuse to release migrant kids to sponsors — and deport them instead” (The Los Angeles Times | May 2020)
• “For Covid-19 and Latinos, Doctors Are Seeing an ‘Alarming’ Disparity” (The New York Times | May 2020)
• “As COVID-19 looms, conditions for migrants stalled at U.S. border are a ‘disaster in the making’” (NBC News | May 2020)
• “‘A Terrible Price’: The Deadly Racial Disparities of Covid-19 in America” (The New York Times | April 2020)
• “U.S. Latinos among hardest hit by pay cuts, job losses due to coronavirus” (Pew Research Center | April 2020)
• “How the coronavirus is surfacing America’s deep-seated anti-Asian biases” (Vox | April 2020)
• Stop AAPI Hate
• Red de Pueblos Trasnacionales/Transnational Villages Network
• Comunidades Indígenas en Liderazgo (CIELO)

Asia Pacific

The pandemic has led to the increased marginalization of refugees, immigrants, and Indigenous people across the Asia Pacific region. Anti-Chinese sentiment in places like Indonesia, Japan, and South Korea menaced immigrant and student communities, while in Hong Kong it was South Asian immigrants whom suspicion fell on in the early days. Early outbreaks and social media–driven misinformation led to the targeting of Muslims in India and Sri Lanka, where they were characterized as disease vectors and threats to public safety. In Malaysia, the combination of anti-immigrant rhetoric, detention, and the threat of deportation have made many undocumented immigrants fearful of coming forward for testing and vaccination. And while Aboriginal Australians fared comparatively well over the first waves of the pandemic, the most recent wave has seen protective measures begin to falter, leading to concerns about the wellbeing of elders and remote communities detached from the major metropolitan areas’ robust public health infrastructures.

Australia

• Video report: Despite humanitarian visas, refugees barred from Australia due to COVID-19 restrictions (ABC News Australia | August 2021)
• “‘There is panic’: Outback outbreak rings covid alarm for Australia’s Indigenous people” (The Washington Post | August 2021)
• “Australia said it was going to collect diversity data with COVID-19 vaccinations and positive tests. But is it?” (ABC News Australia | July 2021)
• “Australia made a plan to protect Indigenous elders from covid-19. It worked.” (The Washington Post | April 2021)

Bangladesh

• Video report: Bangladesh Begins Vaccinating Rohingya Refugees Against Covid (Bloomberg | August 2021)
• Video report: Rohingya refugees face another relocation amid devastating fires, COVID outbreaks in camps (PBS NewsHour | March 2021)

Cambodia

• “‘Please show mercy’: Evicted by Cambodia, ethnic Vietnamese stuck at watery border” (The Thomson Reuters Foundation | July 2021)
• “Phnom Penh’s Floating Fishing Community Faces Eviction” (Voice of America | June 2021)
• “Over 100 deported for overstaying” (The Phnom Penh Post | June 2021)

China

• “Wave of coronavirus cases brings a tide of racism in Hong Kong” (The Washington Post | February 2021)
• “China Locks Down Xinjiang to Fight Covid-19, Angering Residents” (The New York Times | August 2020)
• “China fails to stop racism against Africans over Covid-19” (The Guardian | April 2020)
• “How foreigners, especially black people, became unwelcome in parts of China amid COVID crisis” (ABC News U.S. | April 2020)
• “African expats accuse China of xenophobic response to COVID-19 resurgence fears” (Deutsche Welle | April 2020)

India

• “A tribal village in Kerala’s Wayanad is India’s first fully vaccinated hamlet” (The Hindustan Times | August 2021)
• “How a Remote Indigenous Community Fought the Pandemic” (Scientific American, commentary | July 2021)
• “To ward off pandemic, India’s indigenous tribes find remedies in forests” (The Thomson Reuters Foundation | December 2020)
• Is Covid-19 ‘The Great Leveler’? The Critical Role of Social Identity in Lockdown-induced Job Losses (Deshpande and Ramachandran 2020, Global Labor Organization Discussion Papers | August 2020)
• “India coronavirus: Covid strikes remote Greater Andamanese tribe” (BBC News | August 2020)
• “Playing out live, a narrative of discrimination” (The Hindu, commentary | May 2020)
• “It Was Already Dangerous to Be Muslim in India. Then Came the Coronavirus” (TIME | April 2020)
• “In India, Coronavirus Fans Religious Hatred” (The New York Times | April 2020)
• “Coronavirus: Video of an undertrial in Mumbai falsely viral as Nizamuddin markaz attendee spitting at cop” (AltNews | April 2020)
• “India tracks attendees after Muslim event linked to virus cases” (Al Jazeera | March 2020)
• “‘Hunger will kill us before coronavirus’, say Rohingya in India” (Al Jazeera | March 2020)
• “Migrants in India sprayed with disinfectant to fight coronavirus” (Al Jazeera | March 2020)

Indonesia

• “Scars of Papua conflict weigh on Indonesia’s vaccine drive” (Agence France-Presse, via France 24 | August 2021)
• “Vaccine resistance in West Papua as Covid-19 rages” (Radio New Zealand | July 2021)
• “Indonesia: Indigenous groups face COVID vaccine barriers” (Deutsche Welle | July 2021)
• “Coronavirus: anti-Chinese social media ‘more scary than Covid-19’ in Indonesia” (The South China Morning Post | March 2020)

Japan

• “In Japan, coronavirus discrimination proves almost as hard to eradicate as the disease” (The Washington Post | September 2020)
• “Foreigners in Japan becoming target of discrimination due to virus” (Kyodo News | September 2020)
• “Yokohama Chinatown expresses thanks for support after coronavirus-linked racist letters” (The Mainichi | March 2020)
• “Discrimination in Japan on the rise as coronavirus fears grow” (The Japan Times | February 2020)

Malaysia

• “Fear of arrest among undocumented risks Malaysia vaccine push” (Al Jazeera | August 2021)
• “Malaysia’s Coronavirus Scapegoats” (Foreign Policy | June 2020)
• “Malaysia Rounds up Hundreds of Undocumented Migrants amid Coronavirus Fears” (Voice of America | May 2020)
• “Coronavirus crisis sees Rohingya face growing hostility in Malaysia” (ABC News Australia | April 2020)
• “One million Indonesian migrants in Malaysia lack food under lockdown, says Nahdlatul Ulama” (The South China Morning Post | April 2020)
• “Coronavirus Malaysia: lockdown leaves migrants isolated; indigenous ‘heading back to the forests’” (The South China Morning Post | April 2020)

Myanmar

• “Ethnic health care systems strained in Myanmar amid pandemic” (The Associated Press | August 2021)
• “Myanmar: Displacement Camps Are COVID-19 Tinderboxes” (Human Rights Watch | March 2020)

New Zealand

• COVID–19 data by ethnicity (Ministry of Health)
• “Auckland church at the centre of NZ outbreak becomes target of racist comments” (ABC News Australia | August 2021)
• “A year after New Zealand’s first COVID-19 lockdown, discrimination and racism are on the rise” (The Conversation | May 2021)
• “New Zealand’s vaccination program is built on Pfizer and a plan to take it slow” (ABC News Australia | April 2021)
• Estimated inequities in COVID-19 infection fatality rates by ethnicity for Aotearoa New Zealand (Steyn et al. 2020, The New Zealand Medical Journal)

Singapore

• “Spike in race, religion-related police reports during year of Covid-19, GE2020: MHA” (The Straits Times | July 2021)
• “The S11 dormitory: inside Singapore’s biggest coronavirus cluster” (Reuters | April 2020)

South Korea

• “‘Hate China virus’ puts South Korea’s Moon under pressure” (Nikkei Asian Review | February 2020)

Sri Lanka

• “Sri Lanka: Due Process Concerns in Arrests of Muslims” (Human Rights Watch | April 2020)
• “Muslim organisations in Sri Lanka concerned over ‘hate mongering’” (The Hindu | April 2020)
• “Anguish as Sri Lanka forces Muslims to cremate COVID-19 victims” (Al Jazeera | April 2020)

Taiwan

• “Taiwan Indigenous village blocking tourists from local sites due to COVID concerns” (Taiwan News | July 2021)

Vietnam

• Ethnic migrants in Hanoi: hit hard by lockdowns (Devpolicy Blog | August 2021)

Eurasia

The pandemic has reinvigorated debates over the longstanding reluctance to collect racial and ethnic data in many European countries, leading to governments “flying bind” with respect to health disparities. And there is significant cause to believe such disparities exist. In the U.K., where such data are collected, research has revealed that people of color have experienced worse health outcomes than White people. In northern Russia, Indigenous people have experienced high levels of both health and economic insecurity, with extractive activities having brought the virus to their communities and mobility restrictions disrupting livelihoods. Anti-Traveller and anti-Roma racism have compounded challenges to efforts to provide health services to transient and informally housed communities across the continent. Concerns about the transnational Roma community in particular have grown, with Roma people having historically experienced lower levels of educational and public health access and concentrating in many of the occupational sectors that have taken the biggest hit from the pandemic. And amid ongoing international migration challenges, the pandemic has amplified cross-continental resistance to providing haven for refugees and migrants, relegating asylum-seekers to living conditions that render them even more susceptible to infection.

Transnational

• “‘Locked up like animals’ — immigrant detention centers in the time of the coronavirus” (POLITICO | August 2021)
• Ethnicity as a fundamental cause of health inequity: the case of Roma in Europe during COVID-19 (European Public Health Alliance, commentary | May 2021)
• “International Roma Day: Has Europe’s largest ethnic minority been forgotten over COVID vaccines?” (euronews | April 2021)
• “North Macedonia Kicks Off COVID-19 Vaccinations As Serbia Looks To Highlight Regional Efforts” (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty | February 2021)
• “Vaccines Turn Into Geopolitics in Europe’s Most Volatile Region” (Bloomberg | January 2021)
• “COVID toll turns spotlight on Europe’s taboo of data by race” (Reuters | November 2020)
• “Stranded In Russia With No Money, Desperate Central Asian Migrants Face Tough Choices” (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty | May 2020)
• “Europe’s marginalised Roma people hit hard by coronavirus” (The Guardian | May 2020)
• “Stranded or shunned: Europe’s migrant workers caught in no-man’s land” (The Guardian | April 2020)
• European Roma Rights Centre

Bulgaria

• “Rights group criticises quarantine of Roma settlements in Bulgaria and Slovakia” (Reuters | April 2020)

Finland

• “COVID-19 takes unequal toll on immigrants in Nordic region” (Reuters | April 2020)

France

• “Violence flares in tense Paris suburbs as heavy-handed lockdown stirs ‘explosive cocktail’” (France 24 | April 2020)
• “From private testing for the rich to unrest in banlieues, coronavirus is highlighting France’s stark divide” (CNN | April 2020)
• “In a Paris banlieue, coronavirus amplifies years of inequality” (The Guardian | April 2020)
• “Coronavirus preys on inequalities in Paris suburb” (Al Jazeera | April 2020)
• “For Foreigners on France’s Front Line, COVID-19 Exposes Health Care Shortcomings” (Voice of America | April 2020)
• “‘I am not a virus’: France’s Asian community pushes back over xenophobia” (NBC News | February 2020)
• “Coronavirus: French Asians hit back at racism with ‘I’m not a virus’” (BBC News | January 2020)
• Banlieues Santé

Greece

• “Two migrants test positive for COVID-19 in overcrowded Greek camp” (Euronews and The Associated Press | May 2020)
• Video report: At Greek refugee camp, there are few defenses against COVID-19 threat (PBS NewsHour | March 2020)
• “Migrants wait in bread lines, while tourists dine on grilled octopus in Greece” (The Washington Post | February 2020)

Hungary

• “Hungary Weaponizes Coronavirus to Stoke Xenophobia” (Human Rights Watch | March 2020)

Ireland

• “Ireland underestimating ‘tsunmai of mental health issues’ from pandemic – Mike Ryan” (The Irish Times | July 2021)
• “Funding for Traveller accommodation fully spent last year for first time in six years” (The Irish Times | June 2021)

Italy

• “Misery of Italy’s migrants grows not from virus but lockdown” (The Associated Press | May 2020)
• “Without safe homes or jobs, Italy’s Roma fear coronavirus impact” (Al Jazeera | March 2020)

The Netherlands

• “Ethnic minority Amsterdammers harder hit by coronavirus, according to report” (DutchNews.nl | May 2021)

Norway

• “COVID-19 takes unequal toll on immigrants in Nordic region” (Reuters | April 2020)

Portugal

• “Amid COVID-19, Portugal’s ethnic minorities feel heavily policed” (Al Jazeera | November 2020)

Russia

• Vulnerable Communities: How has the COVID-19 Pandemic affected Indigenous People in the Russian Arctic? (The Arctic Institute | December 2020)
• “Explainer: Russia’s Biggest Coronavirus Hotspots” (The Moscow Times | May 2020)
• The Russian Association  of Indigenous Peoples of the North (RAIPON)

Slovakia

• “Education a Lockdown Luxury for Slovak Roma Kids” (Balkan Insight | May 2020)
• “Slovakia lifts coronavirus quarantine from a Roma settlement” (Reuters | May 2020)

Sweden

• “COVID-19 takes unequal toll on immigrants in Nordic region” (Reuters | April 2020)

Turkey

• “Turkey’s Roma hit harder than most by coronavirus outbreak” (The National | May 2020)

United Kingdom

• Ethnicity and COVID–19 (Gov.uk)
• COVID-19 confirmed deaths in England (to 31 January 2021): report (Public Health England | August 2021)
• “Covid in Wales: Racist incidents ‘take your breath away’” (BBC News | March 2021)
• Video report: Quarter of residents in UK refugee complex catch COVID-19 (Al Jazeera | January 2021)
• “Anger as Priti Patel says NHS fees paid by foreign health staff must stay, just three weeks after announcing ‘review’” (The Independent | May 2020)
• “Economic inequality puts UK ethnic minorities at up to 3.5 times the risk of dying of COVID-19 in hospital” (Business Insider | May 2020)
• “Hate crime against ‘Oriental’ people in London soars, police data show” (The Financial Times | May 2020)
• “Ethnic minorities dying of Covid-19 at higher rate, analysis shows” (The Guardian | April 2020)
• “Million undocumented migrants could go hungry, say charities” (The Guardian | March 2020)